The Effect of Consistency in Paternal - Child Interactions

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The Effect of Consistency in Paternal-Child Interactions

Alana Crystina Page

University of South Florida

Author Note

This research study contained herein was is the final assignment for Research Methods in Psychology, a course I am studying under Dr. Augustine. The materials referenced are factual and the data cited is correct. However, the "results of my research" is hypothetical and NOT intended to be a true representation of real data collected. I do have every intention of conducting an actual study on this very topic and will use this research proposal as the guidelines for that study.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr. Elaine Augustine, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of South Florida, 8350 N Tamiami Trail Sarasota, FL 34243. E-mail: eaugustine1@sar.usf.edu

Abstract

The level of paternal-child interaction in single-mothered families is a determining factor in a child's physical, psychological and physiological development as evidenced in peer-to-peer relations, academic achievement, and overall physical and mental health. In this study, more than one-thousand children and their mothers participated in ongoing lateral research in order to determine the effect of the consistency of that interaction.

The Effect of Consistency in Paternal-Child Interactions

The overall wellbeing of a child is dependent upon many factors. Genetics and environment are perhaps the two largest determining factors in the physical, psychological and physiological development of any adolescent. A tremendous amount of research has been done on both Nature and Nurture - that is the genetic makeup of a child and his or her familial role, and the environment a child is brought up in and interactions with his or her guardians and peers. Of particular interest in the modern era is the effect of single parent households versus intact families. Psychological science has repeatedly affirmed that a child is, generally speaking, healthier and more stable in the latter.

However, little research has been done on the effects of the frequency and consistency of the interactions between the nonresidential father and the children. This is a growing issue today, with the U.S. Census Bureau reporting in 2009 that there are approximately 13.7 million single parents in the United States raising 19 million children. That means that over 25% of American children are living in single parent households. Seventy-eight percent of those children have a non-custodial father, or one that they do not live with.

This paper will outline the effects a non-custodial father's visitation and involvement has on the child. I will discuss the physical, psychological and physiological effects as evidenced in peer-to-peer relations, academic achievement, and overall physical and mental health. This is a relatively new field of study, and one that bears further research. The scope of this paper is to delve into the subject and scratch the surface of an ever growing trend.

Matthew DeBell's 2007 study is outlined in Children Living without Their Fathers: Population Estimates and Indicators of Educational Well-Being. His article appeared in Social Indicators Research the same year. According to his research, about half of American children will live in a single parent household at some time during their adolescence and most of those children will be living without their father. He says that their biological father's removal from their home affects the child in every aspect, and asks three basic questions. 1) How many school-age children live without their biological father? 2) How is living without a biological father associated with social and demographic characteristics? 3) How is living without a biological father associated with indicators of children's wellbeing, such as health, academic achievement, educational experiences, and parental involvement in their school?

DeBell's results were astounding! The financial correlation was evident. Of children living in households with incomes of less than $25,000, 63% have no biological father living in the home. Only 18% of children in families with incomes of $75,000 or more had an absent father. The academic success of the parents involved also seemed to impact the children's. Children of high-school dropouts made up 62% of fatherless homes. Children with parents who earned a graduate education made up just 18%. He interpreted these results to mean that not only does living without a biological father in the home place the child at a disadvantage, but the majority of children in the U.S. are experiencing this disadvantage.

DeBell focused on four specific indicators in regards to his third question. These subjects were health, academic achievement, educational experience, and parent involvement. Sixty-four percent of children in two-parent biological families were maternally reported as being in excellent health compared to only 54% of children in single-parent families. Six percent of the children in the first group had been diagnosed with ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) compared to 11% in the second.

Academically, more than twice the number of children in a father-absent home had repeated a grade and had been suspended or expelled. There was a significant difference in a child's self-reported enjoyment of school and academic challenges. Parent involvement in school showed a noticeable lapse in the single-parent children. Attendance at school meetings, events and conferences showed that children in a two-parent home enjoy much more involvement and receive a significant amount of support compared to their single-mother counterparts. Although these four indicators are not all-inclusive, they do indicate a negative impact on a child's health.

The Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology reported in Internal Controls in Aggressive Children from Father-Present and Father-Absent Families (1972) on the children's development of internal controls over his aggressive impulses. Thirty-eight children between the ages of 8 and 12 participated in the study. Each of them had demonstrated aggressive behavior in the school environment and had subsequently been referred to their guidance counselors. Children who were